Chemistry

subject outline

Topics

• Separation of Mixtures and Purification of Chemical Substances

  This module introduces pure and impure substances, and methods for separating mixtures.

• Separation Processes

  Evaporation, simple and fractional distillation, sublimation, filtration, crystallization, paper and column chromatography, simple and fractional crystallization, magnetization, decantation.

• Chemical Combination

  This module explores fundamental laws of chemical combination and the quantitative aspects of chemical reactions.

• Kinetic Theory of Matter and Gas Laws

  This module covers the kinetic theory of matter, gas laws, and related calculations.

• Phenomena Supporting Kinetic Theory

  Melting, vaporization, boiling, freezing, condensation in terms of molecular motion and Brownian movement.

• Atomic Structure and Bonding

  This module delves into atomic structure, the periodic table, chemical bonding, and nuclear chemistry.

• The Periodic Table and Periodicity of Elements

  Presentation of the periodic table, families of elements (alkali metals, halogens, noble gases, transition metals). Variation of properties: ionization energy, ionic radii, electron affinity, electronegativity.

• Chemical Bonding

  Electrovalency and covalency, electron configuration and noble gas structure. Hydrogen bonding, metallic bonding, coordinate bond (e.g., [Fe(CN)6]³⁻, [Fe(CN)6]⁴⁻, [Cu(NH3)4]²⁺, [Ag(NH3)2]⁺). Van der Waals' forces.

• Shapes of Simple Molecules

  Linear (H2, O2, Cl2, HCl, CO2), non-linear (H2O), tetrahedral (CH4), pyramidal (NH3).

• Nuclear Chemistry - Nuclear Reactions

  Simple equations, uses and applications of natural and artificial radioactivity.

• Natural Gaseous Constituents and Proportion

  Nitrogen, oxygen, water vapour, carbon (IV) oxide and the noble gases (argon and neon).

• Water

  This module examines water's composition, properties, hardness, treatment, and related phenomena.

• Solubility

  This module explores different types of solutions, solubility curves, and the properties of true and false solutions.

• Unsaturated, Saturated, and Supersaturated Solutions

  Solubility curves and simple deductions (solubility defined in terms of mole per dm³) and simple calculations.

• True Solutions, Suspensions, and Colloids

  Properties and examples including Harmattan haze, water paints (suspensions) and fog, milk, aerosol spray, emulsion paints, rubber solution (colloids).

• Environmental Pollution

  This module addresses the sources, effects, and types of environmental pollution.

• Air Pollution

  Examples of air pollutants such as H2S, CO, SO2, oxides of nitrogen, chlorofluorocarbons and dust.

• Acids, Bases and Salts

  This module covers the characteristics, properties, and uses of acids, bases, and salts.

• Acid Definition

  A substance whose aqueous solution furnishes H3O⁺ ions or a proton donor. Ethanoic, citric and tartaric acids as examples of naturally occurring organic acids.

• Oxidation and Reduction - Redox

  This module defines oxidation and reduction, and applies these concepts to chemical reactions and nomenclature.

• Use of Oxidation Numbers

  Oxidation and reduction treated as change in oxidation number and use of oxidation numbers in balancing simple equations.

• Electrolysis

  This module covers electrolytes, Faraday's laws, practical applications of electrolysis, and electrochemical cells.

• Uses of Electrolysis

  Purification of metals e.g. copper and production of elements and compounds (Al, Na, O2, Cl2 and NaOH).

• Electrochemical Cells

  Electrochemical series (K, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb, H, Cu, Hg, Ag, Au), half-cell reactions and electrode potentials (simple calculations only).

• Corrosion Prevention

  Painting, electroplating and coating with grease or oil as ways of preventing iron from corrosion.

• Energy Changes

  This module introduces energy changes in chemical and physical processes, entropy, and spontaneity of reactions.

• Energy Changes (ΔH) Accompanying Physical and Chemical Changes

  Dissolution of substances in/or reaction with water e.g. Na, NaOH, K, NH4Cl. Endothermic (+ΔH) and exothermic (-ΔH) reactions.

• Spontaneity of Reactions

  ΔG° = 0 as a criterion for equilibrium, ΔG greater or less than zero as a criterion for non-spontaneity or spontaneity respectively.

• Rates of Chemical Reaction

  This module explores factors influencing reaction rates, reaction rate curves, and activation energy.

• Effect of Concentration/Pressure on Reaction Rate

  E.g. the reaction between HCl and Na2S2O3, HCl and marble and the iodine clock reaction. For gaseous systems, pressure may be used as concentration term.

• Effect of Surface Area on Reaction Rate

  E.g. the reaction between marble and HCl with marble in powdered form vs. lumps of the same mass.

• Activation Energy

  Qualitative treatment of Arrhenius' law and the collision theory, effect of light on some reactions e.g. halogenation of alkanes.

• Chemical Equilibria

  This module examines reversible reactions, equilibrium factors, and Le Chatelier's principle.

• Non-metals and Their Compounds

  This module details the preparation, properties, and uses of common non-metals and their compounds.

• Hydrogen

  Commercial production from water gas and cracking of petroleum fractions, laboratory preparation, properties, uses and test for hydrogen.

• Halogens - Chlorine

  Laboratory preparation, industrial preparation by electrolysis, properties and uses, e.g. water sterilization, bleaching, manufacture of HCl, plastics and insecticides.

• Oxygen

  Laboratory preparation, properties and uses. Commercial production from liquid air.

• Tetraoxosulphate (VI) Acid

  Commercial preparation (contact process only), properties as a dilute acid, an oxidizing and a dehydrating agent and uses. Test for SO4²⁻.

• Hydrogen Sulphide

  Preparation and properties as a weak acid, reducing and precipitating agents. Test for S²⁻.

• Ammonia

  Laboratory and industrial preparations (Haber Process only), properties and uses, ammonium salts and their uses, oxidation of ammonia to nitrogen (IV) oxide and trioxonitrate (V) acid. Test for NH4⁺.

• Carbon (IV) Oxide

  Laboratory preparation, properties and uses. Action of heat on trioxocarbonate (IV) salts and test for CO3²⁻.

• Carbon (II) Oxide

  Laboratory preparation, properties including its effect on blood; sources to include charcoal, fire and exhaust fumes.

• Coal

  Different types, products obtained from destructive distillation of wood and coal.

• Metals and Their Compounds

  This module covers the general properties of metals, and specific details for alkali metals, alkaline-earth metals, aluminium, tin, transition metals, iron, copper, and alloys.

• Sodium Hydroxide

  Production by electrolysis of brine, its action on aluminium, zinc and lead ions. Uses including precipitation of metallic hydroxides.

• Sodium Trioxocarbonate (IV) and Sodium Hydrogen Trioxocarbonate (IV)

  Production by Solvay process, properties and uses, e.g. Na2CO3 in the manufacture of glass.

• Sodium Chloride

  Its occurrence in sea water and uses, the economic importance of sea water and the recovery of sodium chloride.

• Alkaline-Earth Metals (e.g. Calcium)

  Calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide and calcium trioxocarbonate (IV); properties and uses.

• Aluminium

  Purification of bauxite, electrolytic extraction, properties and uses of aluminium and its compounds. Test for Al³⁺.

• Metals of the First Transition Series - Characteristic Properties

  Electron configuration, oxidation states, complex ion formation, formation of coloured ions, catalysis.

• Iron

  Extraction from sulphide and oxide ores, properties and uses, different forms of iron and their properties and advantages of steel over iron. Test for Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺.

• Copper

  Extraction from sulphide and oxide ores, properties and uses of copper. Preparation and uses of copper (II) Tetraoxosulphate (VI). Test for Cu²⁺.

• Alloys

  Steel, stainless steel, brass, bronze, type-metal, duralumin, soft solder, permallory and alnico (constituents and uses only).

• Organic Compounds

  This module introduces the tetravalency of carbon and details various classes of organic compounds including hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, acids, esters, amines, carbohydrates, proteins, and polymers.

• General Formula, IUPAC Nomenclature and Empirical Formula

  Determination of empirical formula for each class of organic compounds mentioned below.

• Aliphatic Hydrocarbons - Alkanes

  Homologous series in relation to physical properties, substitution reaction and a few examples and uses of halogenated products. Isomerism: structural only (examples on isomerism should not go beyond six carbon atoms).

• Petroleum

  Composition, fractional distillation and major products; cracking and reforming, petrochemicals – starting materials of organic syntheses, quality of petrol and meaning of octane number.

• Alkenes

  Isomerism: structural and geometric isomerism, addition and polymerization reactions, polythene and synthetic rubber as examples of products of polymerization and its use in vulcanization.

• Alkynes - Ethyne

  Production from action of water on carbides, simple reactions and properties of ethyne.

• Alkanols

  Primary, secondary, tertiary – production of ethanol by fermentation and from petroleum by-products. Local examples of fermentation and distillation, e.g. gin from palm wine and other local sources and glycerol as a polyhydric alkanol.

• Reactions of OH Group

  Oxidation as a distinguishing test among primary, secondary and tertiary alkanols (Lucas test).

• Alkanoic Acids

  Chemical reactions; neutralization and esterification, ethanedioic (oxalic) acid as an example of a dicarboxylic acid and benzene carboxylic acid as an example of an aromatic acid.

• Saponification

  Production of soap and margarine from alkanoates and distinction between detergents and soaps.

• Carbohydrates

  Classification – mono-, di- and polysaccharides; composition, chemical tests for simple sugars and reaction with concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid.

• Proteins

  Primary structures, hydrolysis and tests (Ninhydrin, Biuret, Millon's and xanthoproteic).

• Polymers

  Natural and synthetic rubber; addition and condensation polymerization. Methods of preparation, examples and uses.

• Chemistry and Industry

  This module covers types of chemical industries, their raw materials, relevance, and biotechnology.